Welfare and Drug Testing

The welfare program was designed to be a temporary solution to help families in need to get back on their feet, and meet their basic needs. It Is estimated that 50 to 80 percent of family based services involve drugs or alcohol abuse (Chug 2001). Some advantages of mandatory drug testing for welfare recipients are that it fosters self-reliance, averts abuse of the welfare system, gives people an opportunity to receive treatment, and ensures correct allocation of tax dollars. So why not drug test the recipients before a person an get qualified for services? Drug abuse has been a problem in the United States for a very long time.In the beginning before there were regulations narcotics were freely used In elixirs and other medical and homemade remedies. It was not until the effects of these drugs were known, and the damage was already done that government regulations were put into place. It has been determined that the use of drugs has been the main cause of most crimes in the United St ates. Statistically it has been shown that nearly half of the current inmate population has some history of drug abuse. It has been brought to the attention of legislators that there is a drug abuse problem within the welfare system.When the welfare reform act of 1996 was passed there was a provision stated to allow drug testing on an as needed basis. This protocol has not been widely used, and seems to have been forgotten, until now that is. The government has identified a problem within the welfare system, and would like to recoup some of the losses, and also help some of the individuals that do have a problem. Welfare was meant to be a temporary fix† to help a person get back on their feet. If a drug problem Is present, a person will tend to stay on the system, not be employable, and use the benefits for which they were not Intended.To get this issue in check law makers would like to see people be drug tested before being approved for benefits, and periodic random tests whi le they are receiving them as well. There are also provisions for persons who have a drug problem to receive the treatment they need. This pale chart represents the results off poll Fox News did In 2010. The question was, â€Å"Do you Delves welfare recipients snouts De Aragua tested There are many different types of tests used to detect drugs in a person's yester. The type of testing used will be determined on the types of drugs being tested for and the cost effectiveness and time allotment.Some states are proposing the individual will pay for the testing, but will be reimbursed once the results come back negative. Other states are proposing the amount of money they will save by cutting back on benefit fraud will be more than enough to cover the costs of testing. The most cost effective and time efficient method of testing is urinalysis. This test can be administered in an office setting and the results are available immediately. The only down fall to this test is it can be beat b y taking herbal supplements that are made to mask the drug.It is also not accurate in testing for substances like cocaine and alcohol as they are not testable in the urine after 3 days. Hair testing is another option. This test is administered in a clinical setting, and requires small amounts of hair taken from different areas of the head. One inch of hair gives the clinician sixty days of history, and cannot be faked. Blood tests also require a clinical setting and a laboratory to read the results. With the last two options of testing turnaround time an be days, weeks, or months, and can be quite expensive.There are already a few states such as Michigan, Florida, and New Hampshire that have this protocol in place. The strongest argument for the testing of individuals is having such a program in place will help reduce the miss use and miss appropriation of taxpayer's monies. Governor Rick Scott, R Florida, states † It's not right for taxpayer money to be paying for somebody's drug addiction, On top of that, this is going to increase personal responsibility, personal accountability. We shouldn't be subsidizing people's addiction. (Scott, 2011). The state of Florida approved this bill that took effect July 1, 2011.Governor Scott also stated â€Å"It's the right thing for taxpayers,† Scott said after signing the measure. â€Å"It's the right thing for citizens of this state that need public assistance. We don't want to waste tax dollars. And also, we want to give people an incentive to not use drugs. † (Scott, 2011) It is perceived it would help reduce domestic violence and other drug related crimes. Individuals would also receive intervention and care they might not normally have access to without this program. If an individual were to fail a drug test they would be given the option to enter a state treatment program.If the person was to refuse treatment or have a second offense after completing the treatment they would lose their benefits fo r a period of one year. As with all new laws trying to be passed there are also those who are against it. Opponents of drug testing believe that it is violating the constitutional protections in the Fourth Amendment. The Fourth Amendment to the U. S Constitution states, the right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated.Columnist William Safari in The New York Times writes, Not only is my home my castle, my body is my citadel. Unless I give you a probable cause to suspect me of a crime, what goes on in my home and body and mind is my business Robin Merrill of Maine Equal Justice, which provides legal services for the poor states, â€Å"Random drug testing is very questionable legally with respect to constitutional issues. If the government has the right to drug- test people based on receipt of aid from public assistance programs, what is to stop en government Trot requiring Aragua tes ting Tort anyone won receives a student loan or any other government benefit?This law would create a very slippery slope with respect to infringement on people's right to privacy. † Another point in question is will this really save the tax payers any money? How much will the added administrative personal and the testing itself cost? The Miami Herald reports that the savings in Florida could reach one hundred thousand dollars, but no reports of administrative costs have been reported. Adversaries also raise the question about discrimination and alienation. They believe that singling out individuals because of their financial status could be disastrous and have negative effects.Cutting off families benefits because of the actions of an individual could do more harm than good. Just because an individual has a substance abuse problem, how can you prove they are not using their benefits appropriately? (Dona 2005) Whether you are in favor or opposed to welfare recipients being drug tested, the issue is one that most people will encounter on Election Day. People who are in favor say testing will allow people to get help that otherwise would fall through the cracks. It would also raise the UN employment rate by allowing those individuals to become better qualified to obtain and keep Jobs.

Baler – Reaction Paper

We spent two hours inside classroom. I saw a lot, discovered new ideas, thought of filling my senses, felt all the lines in the movie. But when I was about to go out, there seems to be something lacking. It’s like something is not reaching my stomach. It was like dissolved in my throat too early. The movie is acceptable. Full of good intentions. Intentions to deliver good performances, to tell a good story, to educate and entertain, to transport the viewer to a period worth knowing, to render good cinema experience. This movie is based on history which is the Siege of Baler that happened near the end of the Philippine-Spanish War, wherein 57 soldiers hid inside a church against Filipino rebel troops. The major events and officials involved in the movie are real people, like Captain Enrique de Las Morenas, the commander of 57 man Spanish detachment of the Second Expeditionary Rifle Battalion. The siege of Baler is the backdrop of this movie, but the story is focused on the romance of Half-Spanish Half Filipino soldier who is Celso Resurreccion (Jericho Rosales), and a native of Baler, Quezon, who is Feliza Reyes (Anne Curtis). Watching the main characters on how they portray the characters are funny. Jericho doesn’t look like Half Spanish. Also Anne wherein she is a native of Baler. She is not qualified to be one. Good thing she act well enough. Cinematography is not that good. Some are excellent but some are dull. The fight scene at the start looked like a montage. But it lacked spirit, doesn’t affect much the viewer. The church looked very fake. Even in the scene where Feliza is reading a love letter. It was dark, she was holding the lamp under the love letter, but how come she still be able to read it? All in all, the movie is good. Although I said in the beginning it’s not good enough. My expectations aren’t met. For the record, I don’t remember studying the Siege of Baler. This served as a good source of my knowledge on our heritage. Baler Un Libro de reaccion para espanoles Pasamos dos horas dentro de clase. Vi un monton, descubierto nuevas ideas, pensamiento de llenar mis sentidos, sintio todas las lineas en la pelicula. Pero cuando estaba a punto de salir, parece que hay algo que falta. Es como si algo no esta llegando a mi estomago. Era como disuelto en la garganta antes de tiempo. La pelicula es aceptable. Lleno de buenas intenciones. Las intenciones de entregar buenos resultados, para contar una buena historia, educar y entretener, para transportar al espectador a un periodo vale la pena conocer, a hacer experiencia de cine bueno. Esta pelicula esta basada en la historia que es el Sitio de Baler que ocurrio cerca del final de la guerra filipino-espanol, en el que 57 soldados se escondio dentro de una iglesia en contra de las tropas rebeldes filipinos. Los eventos principales y funcionarios involucrados en la pelicula son personas reales, como el capitan de Las Morenas Enrique, el comandante del destacamento hombre de 57 espanoles del Batallon Expedicionario Rifle Segunda. El asedio de Baler es el telon de fondo de esta pelicula, pero la historia se centra en el romance de Half-espanolas mitad soldado filipino que es Celso Resurreccion (Jericho Rosales), y un nativo de Baler, Quezon, que es Feliza Reyes (Anne Curtis ). Viendo a los personajes principales en como retratan los personajes son divertidos. Jericho no se parece a la mitad espanoles. Tambien Anne donde ella es originaria de Baler. Ella no esta calificado para ser uno. Menos mal que actuar lo suficientemente bien. Cinematografia no es tan bueno. Algunos son excelentes, pero algunos son aburridos. La escena de la pelea al principio parecia un montaje. Pero carecia de espiritu, no afecta mucho al espectador. La iglesia se veia muy falso. Incluso en la escena en la que Feliza esta leyendo una carta de amor. Estaba oscuro, que sostenia la lampara bajo la carta de amor, pero ?como es que ella todavia ser capaz de leerlo? En conjunto, la pelicula es buena. Aunque he dicho al principio que no es lo suficientemente bueno. Mis expectativas no se cumplen. Para que conste, no me acuerdo el estudio del asedio de Baler. Esto sirvio como una buena fuente de mi conocimiento sobre nuestro patrimonio.

How to Structure a Dissertation: Chapters & Sub Chapters

The following post includes a concise and in-depth overview of the chapters and subchapters normally contained within a dissertation. These would be very useful when deciding what should go where, and what you should write next. We use this template at our site when assisting students with their dissertations and in particular writing dissertation chapters. We hope you benefit strongly from it as well.Dissertation Chapters & Sub ChaptersDissertations should be structured in the following manner:TITLE PAGEACKNOWLEDGEMENTDEDICATIONABSTRACTTABLE OF CONTENTSLIST OF TABLES (If available) LIST OF FIGURES (if available)INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ORGANISATION UNDER STUDY PROBLEM STATEMENT RESEARCH OBJECTIVE DISSERTATION STRUCTURELITERATURE REVIEWINTRODUCTION LITERATURE REVIEW FINAL SUBCHAPTERS SHOULD INCLUDE: LITERATURE REVIEW SUMMARY RESEARCH QUESTION Do not be descriptive in your literature review. For every one of 2 reviews on a particular subject, come up with equal critiques by opposing authors to have a balanced critique of the subject you are reviewing.METHODOLOGYRESEARCH PHILOSOPHY RESEARCH APPROACH RESEARCH STRATEGY DATA COLLECTION DATA ANALYSIS ACCESS RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, AND GENERALISABILITY ETHICAL ISSUES RESEARCH LIMITATIONS Dissertation Chapters For most sections of the methodology, you should include an appropriate rationale for why you chose to use that particular methodology over an opposing methodology. If you choose positivist over interpretivist, why did you do it? RESULTSIf Quantitative, you should include all the figures, along with a description of the results. If Qualitative or Case Study, you should include the relevant findings in a descriptive format.DISCUSSIONJustification of research topic (why you chose that topic) Recap of Literature Review, and Methodology Justification of Sample Brief Recap of Results Analysis – Split the research question into different sections, and answer each one of the sub questions, based on Literature Review and Results. Then eventually, write a summary that answers the whole research question. Analysis – Make sure you answer the research question. The results should be analyzed in line with the Literature you reviewed in Chapter 2.CONCLUSIONRECOMMENDATIONSREFERENCES A ND BIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDIXYou must be a good storyteller to write a dissertation. You are not expected to interview or survey anybody, but you must be able to understand the organisation, literature review and methodology, up until the point that you can write a convincing thesis to answer your proposed research question (ask for samples if you need them). I suggest and totally recommend that you start from the literature review. We have provided a simple guide called, how to write a dissertation the literature review, that might be helpful to you. Since you are not really conducting the interviews and reports, the literature review would give you a well-rounded overview of the topic. Most social sciences and Law dissertations adopt secondary research, compared to business dissertations that primarily use Primary Research. Ensure that your choice of research is the most adequate for the topic you are working on. Summary Reviewer John – WP Admin Review Date 2017-08-18 Reviewed Item Dissertation Writing Guide: How to Structure a Dissertation? Author Rating 5

Life cycle of information technology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Life cycle of information technology - Essay Example The second phase is to conduct a system analysis to identify the source of the problem and find mechanisms of fixing it. Consequently, in a photography printing store; it is fundamental to disintegrate the store into parts to define the exact problem. Thereafter, a system design is implemented to outline the operations and functions of the store using process diagrams and other forms of documentations (Kelkar, 2011). Third, comprehending the environments under which the employees work is vital because it establishes certain critical purposes. It is because it sets a platform for planning, operation and provisioning to achieve user acceptance during testing. Fourth phase of the life cycle encompasses testing of the computerized time entry system for any defects to ascertain the stability of the whole system. However, the second last phase of training and transition is essential to help staff at the photography printing store learn how to use the new system. Finally, it can operate thr ough a few enhancements and changes during

Infrastructure Vulnerability Analysis and Network Architectures Essay

Infrastructure Vulnerability Analysis and Network Architectures - Essay Example Refinery and storage stages are more vulnerable than at other supply chain components because of faults in the control systems security. It is a phenomenon often enforced by vulnerability analysis in a security framework of processes that include conveyor belts and other industrial networks. Consequently, the improvement of a computer system means all the vulnerabilities that form the infrastructure of refinery and storage phases become strong and less susceptible to attacks. Finding a solution to the Energy Vulnerability Analysis is another critical step of protection the machinery that guides the SCADA structure (Ramalingam, 2004). On the other hand, at the supply chain level, the gas processing plant uses a critical infrastructure of valuable resources and other quantifiable values of cataloguing assets. The risks surrounding the vulnerability assessment, therefore, denote the capacity to defend mitigation and other potential threats. Assessment of the methodologies, thus, forms a security design that is also fundamental when using application servers through penetration mitigation. Overall, the procedure has an impact on denial of service attacks that often has serious ramifications at the refinery and storage stages. Information Technology-Information Sharing and Analysis Centre (IT-ISAC) as an organization established in 2000 helps in boosting IT infrastructure to avoid vulnerabilities. The vulnerabilities are tied to cyber information particularly in analysis and sharing of energy aspects to implement protection modules within a supply chain. Contrastingly, the prevention of cyber threats begins by conducting coordination and analysis activities that embody sharing issues because of a specialized forum that manages risks as seen when dealing with computer products. Consequently, the role of IT when analysed from a SCADA structure assists in

The Challenges Facing the Deployment and Use of IT for the Development Literature review

The Challenges Facing the Deployment and Use of IT for the Development of Public Sector in Saudi Arabia - Literature review Example The rapid economic growth being experienced in the country has largely been as a result of the oil that is exported to other parts of the world. As a growing economy, the country needs to not only develop its infrastructure, but also improve its service delivery to the people (Benington, 2000). Information technology is an aspect of development that is sweeping across many developing countries today, and Saudi Arabia has definitely not been left behind. The implementation of IT plans has greatly helped the country improve the way its citizens get access to public services (Al-zharani, 2009). Using IT Resources The Saudi Communications Commission is the one regulates the deployments and use of IT resources in the country. Among the commission’s responsibilities include: ensuring that the communications services provided are well advanced, regulating the telecommunications sector, creating an environment for fair competition among different players in the telecommunications fiel d and securing the rights of the public to have access to information networks at prices they can afford. In short, this commission is responsible for how the country makes use of its existing structures to deploy and implement IT for the greater good and development of the Saudi public sector (Khan, 2011). Although the country has made some tremendous achievement in creating an information society, there remains a lot to be done so as to ensure that the IT infrastructures are as efficient as possible so as to serve as many people as possible. This means that the government has to consider some of the challenges that hinder the deployment and use of IT for the development of the Saudi public sector including government agencies and come up with ways to ensure that all people enjoy the full benefits of a networked society (Khosrowpour, 2000). Knowledge Workers and the Knowledge Society Knowledge workers include the valued individuals who earn a living by developing and applying knowl edge in specific areas of study. On the other hand, the knowledge society is a society that values knowledge as the primary resource used in production as opposed to labour and capital. Knowledge workers exist in a wide range of fields in Saudi Arabia. With their vast knowledge in their specific areas of interest, the knowledge workers are able to define problems and come up with solutions that affect society, strategies and help in decision making. The making of knowledge workers normally is influenced by the establishment of information technology of the places in which they are based. In Saudi Arabia, the making of more knowledge workers has been influenced by the establishment of e-learning and the availability of ICT resources. The deployment and use of IT for the development of the public sector requires the development of more knowledge workers so as to ensure that they are well equipped to deal with the IT tools at their disposal. Though the government through its e-governme nt efforts is trying to ensure that most areas in the public sector are well equipped with IT technology, there are a number of challenges it experiences (Benington, 2000). One of the challenges that the country faces in terms of knowledge worker development in the area of IT proficiency is the lack of technical skills. Very few of the employees working in the public sector have the proper knowledge to carry out some of the duties that would involve

Creationism and Darwinism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Creationism and Darwinism - Essay Example While one is the more "scientific point" of view, and the other a religious point of view, both have their massive followers, and both have strong points as well as weak arguments. In creationism, the belief is that the world and people were created by a supreme being, usually God. This is the belief held by the majority of major religions, that God himself created the earth and mankind. This idea is based strongly on faith alone, and is depicted both in the Christian and Jewish book of Genesis, and the Koran for Muslims. Many Christians feel that the book of Genesis offers an actual account of the creation story, and that it should be taken literally. However, this is a hard pill to swallow for most people, saying that the book was written by humans and it therefore full of error and may not be exactly what happened. Another argument is that the story may simply be a story to teach a lesson. I do not believe that you can take every single word in the Bible exactly as meant, and that some of it IS in fact figurative. This does not fully disprove creationism however. The scientific held though is the evolution of people as taught by Darwin. It was in Darwin's Origin of Species that he conned the phrase "survival of the fittest", that evolution was continentally evolving and changing.

Argumentative paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Argumentative - Research Paper Example Carefully chosen elements not only help the author create the ambiance needed to pacify the audience, but are also necessary for giving the events and happenings that form part of the story, the meaning that is consistent with the theme of the novel. Every description of the winter season in Narnia has a special purpose of giving meaning to the scenes of the story in addition to the ordinary purpose of telling which weather the various incidents in the story happened in. The eternal winter season which the Witch uses to blanket Narnia is the symbol of a time that is dead and stagnant and has lost the ability to move on. Nothing in the world of Narnia grows while the season remains. Animals sleep through winter. People duck around fires instead of moving out of their homes. There is no element of joy whatsoever in the world that is under the influence of the magic cast by the Witch. Almost every human being who lives in the world of Narnia cultivates a primitive abhorrence for the win ter season even in moths when it is normal for winter to be. Through this, the author has tried to make the audience realize that although winter seems the most pleasant and beautiful of all the seasons of a year particularly when it is accompanied with snowfall, yet if this season ever attained eternity, it would become intolerable for all mankind.

An analysis of job opportunities in the finance field for business Research Paper

An analysis of job opportunities in the finance field for business graduates - Research Paper Example Recruitment levels for fresh graduates are still low due to the adverse effects of financial crisis witnessed in all parts of the globe. It is argued that about 10% of fresh graduates stay for over six months without securing a job in their field of study (Oduma 4). This may result into unchanged starting salaries despite rise in the state of living a state that is not good for graduates. With increased number of graduate, some employers are taking advantage of the situation to pay graduates peanuts since they have little alternatives in employment opportunities. Studies shows that competition for job is so fierce those employers receive up to 56 applications for one vacancy, most of which are fresh graduates in dire need of employment opportunities. This scramble for jobs is worse among business opportunities where employers receive approximately 192 applications form one job opportunity advertised. A quarter of these are people with experience in such positions scrambling for the s ame jobs with fresh graduates a condition, which is amazing. Overview of finance field Since the finance field was the hardest hit by the global financial crisis, the employers are very keen on who to employ and whom not to employ. This is because issues dealing with finances are very sensitive thus, only graduates who are up to the task usually have the highest chances of being employed. This is because they want employees who are able to withstand the high expectations from investors thus develop trust and confidence. There is no room for mistakes when dealing with finances this may severely ruin the reputation of firm.... Overview of finance field Since the finance field was the hardest hit by the global financial crisis, the employers are very keen on who to employ and whom not to employ. This is because issues dealing with finances are very sensitive thus, only graduates who are up to the task usually have the highest chances of being employed. This is because they want employees who are able to withstand the high expectations from investors thus develop trust and confidence. There is no room for mistakes when dealing with finances this may severely ruin the reputation of firm (Oduma 3). Graduates in finance field have a variety of places to explore their skills. Some of these places are supermarkets, airlines, large motorcar companies, investment banks, insurance companies, financial advisers, brooking firms, unit and investment trust companies just but to mention a few. Due to this wide career path, graduates with training in finance field have the advantage of having a wide career base to choose form in the field of finance. Those who do not secure places in the above named places still have the opportunities to work in other places in managerial positions due to the nature of their training (Oduma 4). Several factors diminish the chances of a graduate form getting a job in finance field. They include lack of job skills, inability to communicate well in English, negative attitude, lack of awareness on job opportunities and mismatch between industry needs and thee graduate field of study (Ahmad et al 2). The graduate needs to have all the above-mentioned skills in order to be competitive and survive in the job market. This is because skills and

History of Coffee Essay Example for Free

History of Coffee Essay Coffee is one of the world’s most poplar beverages. Some claim it is the most widely consumed liquid in the world aside from water. Coffee is more than a beverage , however. It is a memory , anticipation, a lifetime of consoling moments of modest pleasure woven into our lives. Coffee’s success as a beverage undoubtedly owes both to the caffeine it harbors and to its sensory pleasure. Coffee lovers come to associate the energizing lift of the caffeine with richness and aroma of the beverage that delivers it. Coffee is grown in more than 50 countries around the world and the principal commercial crop of over a dozen countries, half of which earns 25% to 50% of their foreign exchange revenue from coffee exports. More than 10 billion pounds of coffee beans are grown per year, providing more than 20 million jobs. Coffee is indigenous to Ethiopia and was most likely discovered as a food before it became a drink. The most popular legend of how coffee was discovered involves an Abyssinian goat herder named kaldi. Kaldi awoke one night to find his goats dancing around a tree speckled with red cherries. When he tasted one of the cherries, he too started dancing with the goats. As interesting as this story may be it is more likely that coffee was used as a food supplement by wandering Ethiopian tribes-men. The tribes-men are said to have squashed the coffee cherries and carried them on long journeys, eating them for nourishment as needed. Later, the coffee cherries were soaked in water, possibly to make wine, but some historians say it was not until 1000 AD, when the Arabs discovered how to boil, that coffee was serve hot. Coffee was also believed to have medicinal properties. Avicenna, an Islamic physician and philosopher of the eleventh century, said of coffee: â€Å"It fortifies the members, it cleans the skin and dries up the humilities that are under it, and gives an excellent smell to all the body† CHAPTER – 1 HISTORY OF COFFEE HISTORY OF COFFEE [pic] Palestinian women grinding coffee the old fashioned way, 1905 The history of coffee goes at least as far back as the fifteenth century, though coffees origins remain unclear. It had been believed that Ethiopian ancestors of todays Oromo people were the first to have discovered and recognized the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant. However, no direct evidence has been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant or even known about it, earlier than the 17th century. The story of Kaldi, the 9th-century Ethiopian goatherd who discovered coffee, did not appear in writing until 1671 and is probably apocryphal. From Ethiopia, coffee was said to have spread to Egypt and Yemen. The arliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of Yemen. It was here in Arabia that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed, in a similar way to how it is now prepared. By the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia, Turkey, and northern Africa. Coffee then spread to Italy, and to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, and tothe Americas. Origins Etymology: The word coffee entered English in 1598 via Dutch koffie. This word was created via Turkish kahve, the Turkish pronunciation Arabic qahwa, a truncation of qahhwat al-bun or wine of the bean. One possible origin of the name is the Kingdom of Kaffa in Ethiopia, where the coffee plant originated; its name there is bunn or bunna. Legendary accounts. There are several legendary accounts of the origin of the drink itself. One account involves the Yemenite Sufi mystic Shaikh ash-Shadhili. When traveling in Ethiopia, the legend goes; he observed goats of unusual vitality, and, upon trying the berries that the goats had been eating, experienced the same vitality. A similar Legend of Dancing Goats attributes the discovery of coffee to an Ethiopian goatherder named Kaldi. The story of Kaldi did not appear in writing until 1671, and these stories are considered to be apocryphal. It used to be believed Ethiopian ancestors of todays Oromo tribe, were the first to have recognized the energizing effect of the native coffee plant. Studies of genetic diversity have been performed on Coffea arabica varieties, found to be of low diversity but which retained some residual heterozygosity from ancestral materials, and closely-related diploid species Coffea canephora and C. liberica; however, no direct evidence has ever been found indicating where in Africa coffee grew or who among the natives might have used it as a stimulant, or known about it there, earlier than the seventeenth century. The Muslim world: The earliest credible evidence of either coffee drinking or knowledge Of the coffee tree appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the Sufi monasteries of the Yemen in southern Arabia. It was in Yemen that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed as they are today. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey. From the Muslim world, coffee drinking spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, and coffee plants were transported by the Dutch to the East Indies and to the Americas. Syrian Bedouin from a beehive village in Aleppo, Syria, sipping the traditional murra (bitter) coffee, 1930. The earliest mention of coffee noted by the literary coffee merchant Philippe Sylvestre Dufour is a reference to bunchum in the works of the 10th century CE Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi, known as Rhazes in the West, but more definite information on the preparation of a beverage from the roasted coffee berries dates from several centuries later. The most important of the early writers on coffee was io-de-caprio, who in 1587 compiled a work tracing the history and legal controversies of coffee entitled Umdat al safwa fi hill al-qahwa. He reported that one Sheikh, Jamal-al-Din al-Dhabhani, mufti of Aden, was the first to adopt the use of coffee (circa 1454). Coffees usefulness in driving away sleep made it popular among Sufis. A translation traces the spread of coffee from Arabia Felix (the present day Yemen) northward to Mecca and Medina, and then to the larger cities of Cairo, Damascus, Baghdad, and Istanbul. Coffee beans were first exported from Ethiopia to Yemen. Yemeni traders brought coffee back to their homeland and began to cultivate the bean. The first coffeehouse opened in Istanbul in 1554. Coffee was at first not well received. In 1511, it was forbidden for its stimulating effect by conservative, orthodox imams at a theological court in Mecca. However, the popularity of the drink led these bans to be overturned in 1524 by an order of the Ottoman Turkish Sultan Selim I, with Grand Mufti Mehmet Ebussuud el-Imadi issuing a celebrated fatwa allowing the consumption of coffee. In Cairo, Egypt, a similar ban was instituted in 1532, and the coffeehouses and warehouses containing coffee beans were sacked. Similarly, coffee was banned by the Ethiopian Orthodox Church some time before the 12th century. However, in the second half of the 19th century, Ethiopian attitudes softened towards coffee drinking, and its consumption spread rapidly between 1880 and 1886; according to Richard Pankhurst, this was largely due to [Emperor] Menilek, who himself drank it, and to Abuna Matewos who did much to dispel the belief of the clergy that it was a Muslim drink. Europe [pic] Dutch engraving of Mocha in 1692 Coffee was noted in Ottoman Aleppo by the German physician botanist Leonhard Rauwolf, the first European to mention it, as chaube, in 1573; Rauwolf was closely followed by descriptions from other European travellers. Coffee was first imported to Italy from the Ottoman Empire. The vibrant trade between Venice and the Muslims in North Africa, Egypt, and the East brought a large variety of African goods, including coffee, to this leading European port. Venetian merchants introduced coffee-drinking to the wealthy in Venice, charging them heavily for the beverage. In this way, coffee was introduced to Europe. Coffee became more widely accepted after controversy over whether it was acceptable during Lent was settled in its favor by Pope Clement VIII in 1600, despite appeals to ban the drink. The first European coffee house (apart from those in the Ottoman Empire, mentioned above) was opened in Venice in 1645. England Largely through the efforts of the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company, coffee became available in England no later than the 16th century according to Leonhard Rauwolfs 1583 account. The first coffeehouse in England was opened in St. Michaels Alley in Cornhill. The proprietor was Pasqua Rosee, the servant of Daniel Edwards, a trader in Turkish goods. Edwards imported the coffee and assisted Rosee in setting up the establishment. Oxfords Queens Lane Coffee House, established in 1654, is still in existence today. By 1675, there were more than 3,000 coffeehouses throughout England. Popularity of coffeehouses spread rapidly in Europe, and later, America. The banning of women from coffeehouses was not universal, but does appear to have been common in Europe. In Germany women frequented them, but in England they were banned. Many believed coffee to have several medicinal properties in this period. For example, a 1661 tract entitled A character of coffee and coffee-houses, written by one M. P. , lists some of these perceived virtues: Not everyone was in favour of this new commodity, however. For example, the anonymous 1674 Womens Petition against Coffee declared: France Antoine Galland (1646-1715) in his aforementioned translation described the Muslim association with coffee, tea and chocolate: We are indebted to these great [Arab] physicians for introducing coffee to the modern world through their writings, as well as sugar, tea, and chocolate. Galland reported that he was informed by Mr. de la Croix, the interpreter of King Louis XIV of France, that coffee was brought to Paris by a certain Mr. Thevenot, who had travelled through the East. On his return to that city in 1657, Thevenot gave some of the beans to his friends, one of whom was de la Croix. However, the major spread of the popularity of this beverage in Paris was soon to come. In 1669, Soleiman Agha, Ambassador from Sultan Mehmed IV, arrived in Paris with his entourage bringing with him a large quantity of coffee beans. Not only did they provide their French and European guests with coffee to drink, but they also donated some beans to the royal court. Between July 1669 and May 1670, the Ambassador managed to firmly establish the custom of drinking coffee among Parisians. [pic]. Melange in Vienna Austria The first coffeehouse in Austria opened in Vienna in 1683 after the Battle of Vienna, by using supplies from the spoils obtained after defeating the Turks. The officer who received the coffee beans, Polish military officer of Ukrainian origin Jerzy Franciszek Kulczycki, opened the coffee house and helped popularize the custom of adding sugar and milk to the coffee. Until recently, this was celebrated in Viennese coffeehouses by hanging a picture of Kulczycki in the window. Melange is the typical Viennese coffee, which comes mixed with hot foamed milk and a glass of water. Netherlands The race among Europeans to make off with some live coffee trees or beans was eventually won by the Dutch in the late 17th century, when they allied with the natives of Kerala against the Portuguese and brought some live plants back from Malabar to Holland, where they were grown in greenhouses. The Dutch began growing coffee at their forts in Malabar, India, and in 1699 took some to Batavia in Java, in what is now Indonesia. Within a few years the Dutch colonies (Java in Asia, Surinam in Americas) had become the main suppliers of coffee to Europe. Americas. Gabriel de Clieu brought coffee seedlings to Martinique in the Caribbean circa 1720. Those sprouts flourished and 50 years later there were 18,680 coffee trees in Martinique enabling the spread of coffee cultivation to Haiti, Mexico and other islands of the Caribbean. Coffee also found its way to the island of Reunion in the Indian Ocean known as the Isle of Bourbon. The plant produced smaller beans and was deemed a different variety of Arabica known as var. Bourbon. The Santos coffee of Brazil and the Oaxaca coffee of Mexico are the progeny of that Bourbon tree. Circa 1727, the Emperor of Brazil sent Francisco de Mello Palheta to French Guinea to obtain coffee seeds to become a part of the coffee market. Francisco initially had difficulty obtaining these seeds yet he captivated the French Governors wife and she in turn, sent him enough seeds and shoots which would commence the coffee industry of Brazil. In 1893, the coffee from Brazil was introduced into Kenya and Tanzania (Tanganyika), not far from its place of origin in Ethiopia, 600 years prior, ending its transcontinental journey. The French colonial plantations relied heavily on African slave laborers. Ancient Production of coffee The first step in Europeans wresting the means of production was effected by Nicolaes Witsen, the enterprising burgomaster of Amsterdam and member of the governing board of the Dutch East India Company who urged Joan van Hoorn, the Dutch governor at Batavia that some coffee plants be obtained at the export port of Mocha in Yemen, the source of Europes supply, and established in the Dutch East Indies; the project of raising many plants from the seeds of the first shipment met with such success that the Dutch East India Company was able to supply Europes demand with Java coffee by 1719. Encouraged by their success, they soon had coffee plantations in Ceylon Sumatra and other Sunda islands. Coffee trees were soon grown under glass at the Hortus Botanicus of Leiden, whence slips were generously extended to other botanical gardens. Dutch representatives at the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Utrecht presented their French counterparts with a coffee plant, which was grown on at the Jardin du Roi, predecessor of the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris. The introduction of coffee to the Americas was effected by Captain Gabriel des Clieux, who obtained cuttings from the reluctant botanist Antoine de Jussieu, who was loath to disfigure the kings coffee tree. Clieux, when water rations dwindled during a difficult voyage, shared his portion with his precious plants and protected them from a Dutchman, perhaps an agent of the Provinces jealous of the Batavian trade. Clieux nurtured the plants on his arrival in the West Indies, and established them in Guadeloupe and Saint- Domingue in addition to Martinique, where a blight had struck the cacao plantations, which were replaced by coffee plantations in a space of three years, is attributed to France through its colonization of many parts of the continent starting with the Martinique and the colonies of the West Indies where the first French coffee plantations were founded. The first coffee plantation in Brazil occurred in 1727 when Lt. Col. Francisco de Melo Palheta smuggled seeds, still essentially from the germ plasm originally taken from Yemen to Batavia, from French Guiana. By the 1800s, Brazils harvests would turn coffee from an elite indulgence to a drink for the masses. Brazil, which like most other countries cultivates coffee as a commercial commodity, relied heavily on slave labor from Africa for the viability of the plantations until the abolition of slavery in 1888. The success of coffee in 17th-century Europe was paralleled with the spread of the habit of tobacco smoking all over the continent during the course of the Thirty Years War (1618–48). For many decades in the 19th and early 20th centuries, Brazil was the biggest producer of coffee and a virtual monopolist in the trade. However, a policy of maintaining high prices soon opened opportunities to other nations, such as Colombia, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Indonesia and Vietnam, now second only to Brazil as the major coffee producer in the world. Large-scale production in Vietnam began following normalization of trade relations with the US in 1995. Nearly all of the coffee grown there is Robusta. Despite the origins of coffee cultivation in Ethiopia, that country produced only a small amount for export until the Twentieth Century, and much of that not from the south of the country but from the environs of Harar in the northeast. The Kingdom of Kaffa, home of the plant, was estimated to produce between 50,000 and 60,000 kilograms of coffee beans in the 1880s. Commercial production effectively began in 1907 with the founding of the inland port of Gambela, and greatly increased afterwards: 100,000 kilograms of coffee was exported from Gambela in 1908, while in 1927-8 over 4 million kilograms passed through that port. Coffee plantations were also developed in Arsi Province at the same time, and were eventually exported by means of the Addis Ababa Djibouti Railway. While only 245,000 kilograms were freighted by the Railway, this amount jumped to 2,240,000 kilograms by 1922, surpassed exports of Harari coffee by 1925, and reached 9,260,000 kilograms in 1936. Australia is a minor coffee producer, with little product for export, but its coffee history goes back to 1880 when the first of 500  acres (2. 0  km2) began to be developed in an area between northern New South Wales and Cooktown. Today there are several producers of Arabica coffee in Australia that use a mechanical harvesting system invented in 1981. *** CHAPTER – 2 INSIGHT ON COFFEE INSIGHT ON COFFEE |Coffee | |[pic] | |Roasted coffee beans | |Type |Hot or cold beverage | |Country of origin |Ethiopia, and  Yemen | |Introduced |Approx. 15th century AD (beverage) | |Color |Brown | Coffee  is a  brewed  drink  prepared from roasted  seeds, commonly called  coffee beans, of the  coffee plant. They are seeds of coffee cherries that grow on trees in over 70 countries. Green coffee, for example, is one of the most traded agricultural commodities in the world. Due to its  caffeine  content, coffee can have a stimulating effect in humans. Today, coffee is one of the most popular beverages worldwide. It is thought that the energizing effect of the coffee bean plant was first recognized in  Yemen  in Arabia and the north east of  Ethiopia, and the cultivation of coffee first expanded in the Arab  world. The earliest credible evidence of coffee drinking appears in the middle of the fifteenth century, in the  Sufi  monasteries of the  Yemen  in southern  Arabia. From the  Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, then to the rest of Europe, to  Indonesia, and to the Americas. Coffee has played an important role in many societies throughout history. In Africa and Yemen, it was used in religious ceremonies. As a result, the  Ethiopian Church  banned its secular consumption until the reign of EmperorMenelik II of Ethiopia. It was banned in  Ottoman  Turkey during the 17th century for political reasons,  and was associated with rebellious political activities in Europe. Coffee berries, which contain the coffee bean, are produced by several species of small  evergreen  bush of the  genus  Coffea. The two most commonly grown are  Coffea canephora  (also known as  Coffea robusta) and  Coffea arabica. Both are cultivated primarily in  LatinAmerica,Southeast Asia, and Africa. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked, processed, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to varying degrees, depending on the desired flavor. They are then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffee can be prepared and presented in a variety of ways. An important export commodity, coffee was the top agricultural export for 12 countries in 2004,  and in 2005, it was the worlds seventh-largest legal agricultural export by value. Some controversy is associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on the environment. Many studies have examined the relationship between coffee consumption and certain medical conditions; whether the overall effects of coffee are ultimately positive or negative has been widely disputed. However, the method of brewing coffee has been found to be important. Biology Several species of shrub of the genus  Coffea  produce the berries from which coffee is extracted. The two main cultivated species,  Coffea canephora(also known as  Coffea robusta) and  C. arabica, are native to subtropical Africa and southern Asia. Less popular species are  C. liberica,  excelsa,stenophylla,  mauritiana, and  racemosa. They are classified in the large family  Rubiaceae. They are  evergreen  shrubs or small trees that may grow 5  m (15  ft) tall when unpruned. The leaves are dark green and glossy, usually 10–15  cm (4-6  in) long and 6  cm (2. 4  in) wide. Clusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultaneously and are followed by oval berries of about 1. 5  cm. Green when immature, they ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turning black on drying. Each berry usually contains two seeds, but 5–10% of the berries  have only one; these are called  peaberries. Berries ripen in seven to nine months. Cultivation Coffee is usually propagated by seeds. The traditional method of planting coffee is to put 20  seeds in each hole at the beginning of the  rainy season; half are eliminated naturally. A more effective method of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to raise seedlings in nurseries, which are then planted outside at 6 to 12  months. Coffee is often intercropped with food crops, such as corn, beans, or rice, during the first few years of cultivation. [pic] Map showing areas of coffee cultivation: r:Coffea canephora m:Coffea canephora  and  Coffea arabica a:Coffea arabica Of the two main species grown, arabica coffee (from  C. arabica) is considered more suitable for drinking than robusta coffee (from  C. canephora); robusta tends to be bitter and have less flavor but better body than arabica. For these reasons, about three-quarters of coffee cultivated worldwide is  C. arabica. However,  C. canephora  is less susceptible to disease than  C. arabica  and can be cultivated in  environments  where  C. arabica  will not thrive. Robusta coffee also contains about 40–50% more caffeine than arabica. For this reason, it is used as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee blends. Good quality robustas are used in some  espresso  blends to provide a better foam head, a full-bodied result, and to lower the ingredient cost. The species  Coffea liberica  and  Coffea esliaca  are believed to be indigenous to  Liberia  and southern  Sudan, respectively. Most arabica coffee beans originate from either  Latin America,  eastern Africa, Arabia, or Asia. Robusta coffee beans are grown in western and  central Africa, throughout  southeast Asia, and to some extent in Brazil. Beans from different countries or regions can usually be distinguished by differences in flavor, aroma,  body, or acidity. These taste characteristics are dependent not only on the coffees growing region, but also on genetic subspecies (varietals) and processing. Varietals are generally known by the region in which they are grown, such as  Colombian,  Java  or  Kona. Production Brazil  is the world leader in production of green coffee, followed by  Vietnam  and  Colombia  the last of which produces a much  softer coffee. |Top twenty green coffee producers  Ã¢â‚¬â€ Tonnes (2007) and Bags thousands (2007) | |Country |Tonnes |Bags thousands | |[pic]  Brazil |2,249,010 |36,070 | |[pic]  Vietnam |961,200 |16,467 | |[pic]  Colombia |697,377 |12,515 | |[pic]  Indonesia |676,475 |7,751 | |[pic]  Ethiopia |325,800 |4,906 | |[pic]  India |288,000 |4,148 | |[pic]  Mexico |268,565 |4,150 | |[pic]  Guatemala |252,000 |4,100 | |[pic]  Peru |225,992 |2,953 | |[pic]  Honduras |217,951 |3,842 | |[pic]  Cote dIvoire |170,849 |2,150 | |[pic]  Uganda |168,000 |3,250 | |[pic]  Costa Rica |124,055 |1,791 | |[pic]  Philippines |97,877 |431 | |[pic]  El. Salvador |95,456 |1,626 | |[pic]  Nicaragua |90,909 |1,700 | |[pic]  Papua New Guinea |75,400 |968 | |[pic]  Venezuela |70,311 |897 | |[pic]  Madagascar[note 2] |62,000 |604 | |[pic]  Thailand |55,660 |653 | |  Ã‚  World |7,742,675 |117,319 | Ecological effects [pic] [pic] A flowering  Coffea arabica  tree in a Brazilian plantation Originally, coffee farming was done in the  shade  of trees, which provided a habitat for many animals and insects. This method is commonly referred to as the traditional shaded method, or shade-grown. Many farmers switched their production method to sun cultivation, in which coffee is grown in rows under full sun with little or no forest canopy. This causes berries to ripen more rapidly and bushes to produce higher yields, but requires the clearing of trees and increased use of fertilizer and pesticides, which damage the environment and cause health problems. When compared to the sun cultivation method, traditional coffee production causes berries to ripen more slowly and produce lower yields, but the quality of the coffee is allegedly superior. In addition, the traditional shaded method is environmentally friendly and provides living space for many wildlife species. Opponents of sun cultivation say environmental problems such as deforestation, pesticide pollution,  habitat destruction, and soil and water degradation are the side effects of these practices. The  American Birding Association,  Smithsonian Migratory Bird- Center, Rainforest Alliance, and the  Arbor Day Foundation  have led a campaign for shade-grown and  organic coffees, which it says are sustainably harvested. However, while certain types of shaded coffee cultivation systems show greater biodiversity than full-sun systems, they still compare poorly to native forest in terms of habitat value. Another issue concerning coffee is its  use of water. According to  New Scientist, if using industrial farming practices, it takes about 140 liters of water to grow the coffee beans needed to produce one cup of coffee, and the coffee is often grown in countries where there is a water shortage, such as  Ethiopia. By using   sustainable agriculture  methods, the amount of water usagecan be dramatically reduced, while retaining comparable yields. Coffee grounds may be used for  composting  or as a  mulch. They are especially appreciated by  worms  and  acid-loving plants  such as  blueberries. *** CHAPTER – 3 TYPES OF COFFEE TYPES OF COFFEE Coffea Arabica | | |Scientific classification | |Kingdom: |Plantae | |(unranked): |Angiosperms | |(unranked): |Eudicots | |(unranked): |Asterids | |Order: |Gentianales | |Family: |Rubiaceae | |Genus: |Coffea | |Species: |C. arabica | |Binomial name | |Coffea arabica |. Coffea arabica is a species of coffee originally indigenous to the mountains of Yemen in the Arabian Peninsula, hence its name, and also from the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia and southeastern Sudan. It is also known as the coffee shrub of Arabia, mountain coffee or arabica coffee. Coffea arabica is believed to be the first species of coffee to be cultivated, being grown in southwest Arabia for well over 1,000 years. It is considered to produce better coffee than the other major commercially grown coffee species, Coffea canephora (robusta). Arabica contains less caffeine than any other commercially cultivated species of coffee. Wild plants grow to between 9 and 12 m tall, and have an open branching system; the leaves are opposite, simple elliptic-ovate to oblong, 6–12  cm long and 4–8  cm broad, glossy dark green. The flowers are white, 10–15  mm in diameter and grow in axillary clusters. The fruit is a drupe (though commonly called a berry) 10–15  mm in diameter, maturing bright red to purple and typically contain two seeds (the coffee bean). | | Distribution and habitat Originally found in the southwestern highlands of Ethiopia, Coffea arabica is now rare there in its native state, and many populations appear to be mixed native and planted trees. It is common there as an understorey shrub. It has also been recovered from the Boma Plateau in southeastern Sudan. Coffea arabica is also found on Mt Marsabit in northern Kenya, but it is unclear whether this is a truly native or naturalised occurrence. Yemen is also believed to have native Coffea arabica growing in fields. Cultivation Coffea arabica takes about seven years to mature fully and does best with 1- 1. 5 meters (about 40-59  inches) of rain, evenly distributed throughout the year. It is usually cultivated between 1,300 and 1,500 m altitude, but there are plantations as low as sea level and as high as 2,800 m. The plant can tolerate low temperatures, but not frost, and it does best when the temperature hovers around 20  °C (68  °F). Commercial cultivars mostly only grow to about 5 m, and are frequently trimmed as low as 2 m to facilitate harvesting. Unlike Coffea canephora, Coffea arabica prefers to be grown in light shade. Two to four years after planting Coffea arabica produces small, white and highly fragrant flowers. The sweet fragrance resembles the sweet smell of jasmine flowers. When flowers open on sunny days, this results in the greatest numbers of berries. This can be a curse however as coffee plants tend to produce too many berries; this can lead to an inferior harvest and even damage yield in the following years as the plant will favor the ripening of berries to the detriment of its own health. On well kept plantations this is prevented by pruning the tree. The flowers themselves only last a few days leaving behind only the thick dark green leaves. The berries then begin to appear. These are as dark green as the foliage, until they begin to ripen, at first to yellow and then light red and finally darkening to a glossy deep red. At this point they are called cherries and are ready for picking. The berries are oblong and about 1  cm long. Inferior coffee results from picking them too early or too late, so many are picked by hand to be able to better select them, as they do not all ripen at the same time. They are sometimes shaken off the tree onto mats, which means that ripe and unripe berries are collected together. The trees are difficult to cultivate and each tree can produce anywhere from 0. 5–5  kg of dried beans, depending on the trees individual character and the climate that season. The real prize of this cash crop are the beans inside. Each berry holds two locules containing the beans. The coffee beans are actually two seeds within the fruit; there is sometimes a third seed or one seed, a peaberry in the fruits at tips of the branches. These seeds are covered in two membranes, the outer one is called the parchment and the inner one is called the silver skin. In perfect conditions, like those of Java, trees are planted at all times of the year and are harvested year round. In less ideal conditions, like those in parts of Brazil, the trees have a season and are harvested only in winter. The plants are vulnerable to damage in poor growing conditions and are also more vulnerable to pests than the Robusta plant. Gourmet coffees are almost exclusively high-quality mild varieties of coffea arabica, like Colombian coffee. Arabica coffee production in Indonesia began in 1699. Indonesian coffees, such as Sumatran and Java, are known for heavy body and low acidity. This makes them ideal for blending with the higher acidity coffees from Central America and East Africa. Coffea canephora | | |Scientific classification | |Kingdom: |Plantae | |(unranked): |Angiosperms | |(unranked): |Eudicots | |(unranked): |Asterids | |Order: |Gentianales | |Family: |Rubiaceae | |Genus: |Coffea | |Species: |C. canephora | |Binomial name | |Coffea canephora | Coffea canephora (Robusta Coffee Coffea robusta) is a species of coffee which has its origins in central and western subsaharan Africa. It is grown mostly in Africa and Brazil, where it is often called Conillon. It is also grown in Southeast Asia where French colonists introduced it in the late 19th century. In recent years Vietnam, which only produces robusta, has surpassed Brazil, India, and Indonesia to become the worlds single largest exporter. Approximately one third of the coffee produced in the world is robusta. Canephora is easier to care for than the other major species of coffee, Coffea arabica, and, because of this, is cheaper to produce. Since arabica beans are often considered superior, robusta is usually limited to lower grade coffee blends as filler. It is however often included in instant coffee, and in espresso blends to promote the formation of crema. Robusta has about twice as much caffeine as arabica. Description Coffea canephora grew.

The Defining Of Corruption In Governments Politics Essay

The Defining Of Corruption In Governments Politics Essay Corruption as a word is derived from the Latin word corruptus meaning to break up. The use of the word emphasizes the destructive effect of corruption on the fabric of society and the situations where agents and public officers break the confidence entrusted in them Nicholls, Daniel, Polaine, Hatchard, (2006). Johnston, (2005) quoting the works of Nye, (1967); Heidenheinmer, (1970); Scott, (1972); Thompson, (1993); Thompson, (1995); Johnston, (1996); Philip, (1997); and Philip, (2002), stated that definitional issues of corruption is a matter of long-running debate and therefore it is always difficult to settle for any specific definition. He states that the decisive role of the state is reflected in most definitions of corruption, and therefore agrees that corruption is conventionally understood, and referred to, as the private wealth seeking behaviour of someone who represents the state and the public authority. It is the misuse of public resources by public officials, for private gains. The working definition used by the World Bank, Transparency International and others is that corruption is the abuse of public power for private benefit (or profit). Another widely used description is that corruption is a transaction between private and public sector actors through which collective goods are illegitimately converted into private-regarding payoffs (Heidenheimer et al. 1989:6). This point is also emphasized by Rose-Ackerman, who says corruption exists at the interface of the public and private sectors (Rose-Ackerman 1978). In Colin Nyes classical definition, corruption is behaviour that deviates from the formal duties of a public role (elective or appointive) because of private-regarding (personal, close family, private clique) wealth or status gains(Nye 1967:416). Samuel Huntington noted that where political opportunities are scarce, corruption occurs as people use wealth to buy power, and where economic opportunities are few, corruption occurs when political power is used to pursue wealth (Huntington 1968). Huntington (1968), Myrdal (1968) and Scott (1969), believes that corruption is most prevalent during the most intense phase of modernization of a country and tends to decline with institutionalization of advanced democracy (see also Pavarala, 1996). It is however argued that this view cannot explain the prevalence of corruption in advanced industrial democracies because there is now increasing evidence of political corruption and systematic influence peddling in the US and UK (Amick, 1976; Drewry, 1977; Pinto-Duschinsky, 1977; Benson, 1978; Ashworth, 1981; Johnston, 1982; Doig, 1984; Etzioni, 1984). For the purpose of this dissertation, corruption will be defined as the use of public office for private gain provided by Rose-Ackerman (1975, 1978), Becker and Stigler (1974), Klitgaard (1988, 1991), Shleifer and Vishny (1993), Myint, U, 2000; Johnson D.T Zimring F.E, 2005) and Transparency International. This in other words, involves the use of official position, rank or status by an office bearer for his personal benefit. 2.3. Forms of Corruption: There are different forms of corruption, Pedersen and Johannsen (2008); classification by typology, Roebuck and Barker (1974); Heidenheimer, (1989); Alemann (1995); Punch (200); Tserndoodov (2001); and Miller (2003). According to Shah, (2008) corruption is not manifested in one single form. Some scholars group corruption as grand corruption, petty corruption, sporadic corruption, systemic corruption or active and passive corruption base on the stages and magnitude of the malaise, while some like Robinson (2004 p.3) categorized corruption into three main forms: incidental (individual), institutional (for example, the police service) and systemic (societal). However, irrespective of the classification or level of the phenomenon, Vargas-Hernandez (2009), like many other scholars, believe that corruption can be in form of any of the following: bribery, collusion, embezzlement of public funds and theft, fraud, extortion, abuse of discretion, favouritism, clientelism, nepotism, and others. This can be presented in a pictorial form as shown in figure (1) below. Bribery Cronyism Embezzlement Extortion Forms of Corruption Nepotism Conflict of Interest Favouritism Fraud Figure 1. Forms of Corruption In various forms listed in figure (1) above, corrupt activities such as fraud and embezzlement can be undertaken by an official alone and without involvement of a second party. While others such as bribery, extortion and influence peddling involve two parties. There must be a giver and taker in a corrupt deal. The two party type of corruption can arise under a variety of circumstances either in public or private official function. 2.3.1 Bribery: Bribery is defined as the payment for a corrupt act (Zimring Johnson, 2005). A bribery corrupt act is always perpetuated by two or more individuals. Bribery requires collusion between a private citizen and a public employee (Morris, 1991). Albrecht, Albrecht, Albrecht Zimbelman (2009) says bribery involves the offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting of anything of value to influence and official act. According to Myint, (2000), bribes as one of several two party corrupt act offence, involves amongst others, government contracts to determine who gets what contract and the terms of the contract; government benefits like subsidies for importation, permits for explorations and purchase of privatized government corporations; reduction in taxable fees like import duties, custom duties, utility fees, electricity fees and income taxes for both business and private individuals, thus reducing government revenue (See also Rose-Ackerman 2005). It is also argued that bribery c an speed up the wheels of bureaucracy more smoothly and speedily (Myint, 2000); as well as influence the outcome of a legal and regulatory process. A legal definition can be found in (Nicholls, Daniel, Polaine Hatchard, 2006 p. 18). While some theorists like Leff (1964), Leys (1965), Huntington (1968) and Mendez Sepulveda (2006), see bribery under the greasing the wheels hypothesis as payment that is beneficial in alleviating the distortions caused by ill-functioning institutions and thus reducing cost associated with queues (Lui, 1985) (see also Rose-Ackerman 2005, pp. 15-16), it has been established that bribery constitute not only a threat to some countries, but a threat to the future of global security. Osborne (1997) argues that bribery undermines governments by reducing income from taxes, duties, and fees, while increasing the cost of service delivery. He posited that bribery destroys competition and thus companies that bribe their way to a contract or waiver for exploration, loads their prices to cover for the bribes. This creates a spiralling effect that distorts government policies as a result of the personal gain to be derived, subvert company cultures, destabilizes society due to resource diversion, low productivity and making controls ineffective and invariably constituting a threat to global security as a result of drug trafficking, organised crime and terrorism. The most widely quoted bribery statistic is the World Banks worldwide estimate of $1 trillion per year with the total cost of corruption estimated at more than 5% of global GDP (US $2.6 trillion), Cleveland, Favo, Frecka Owens (2010) and the economic effects and ethicality of bribery have been discussed by literally hundreds of sources including Dalton (2006), Gray and Kaufmann (1988), Nichols (1999), and Shaw (2000). 2.3.2. Fraud: Another common corrupt practice is fraud. Fraud is an act of misrepresentation or deception by way of charging for goods or services that was never delivered, changing the specifications or timing on goods and services and their expiration dates, and concealment of funds paid as fees or custom duties. Customs fraud for instance can be the under or over valuation of the value of goods or misclassification and underpayment of taxes. Fraud is the use of misleading information to induce someone to turn over the property voluntarily. According to Albrecht et al (2009 p 7), fraud is a generic term, and embraces all multifarious means which human ingenuity can devise, which are resorted to by one individual, to get an advantage over another by false representationincludes surprise, trickery, cunning and unfair ways by which another is cheated. Fraud is mostly expressed in the form of the Fraud Triangle depicting the three elements of pressure, opportunity and rationalization ( Albrecht, Wernz Williams, 1995). In the public sector therefore, bureaucrats and their private collaborators tend to defraud the public by way of contract inflation, white elephant projects, and poor quality service delivery. In the private sector, fraud is classified variously as employee fraud, vendor fraud, customer fraud, management fraud, investment scams and others (Albrecht et al, 2009). However, the focus of this research is on public sector fraud. 2.3.3. Embezzlement and Theft: These are the form of corruption that is characterized by the taking or conversion of funds, assets or other valuables for private gain. These forms of corruption involve the abuse of public trust on the asset entrusted to the individual. According to Green (2002 p. 99), embezzlement is a crime of specific intent in which a person fraudulently misappropriates or misapplies something that has been legally entrusted to that person but which he or she does not own, thereby usurping the legal owners control For instance, an official can collide with a contractor who is engaged to perform some service and embezzle some of the fund meant for the contract and encourage the contractor to provide a substandard service to be able to recoup the original cost of the contract. Embezzlement therefore is the misappropriation of funds legally entrusted to an official in their formal position as an agent, guardian or trustee. According to Albrecht et al, (2009) embezzle ment is a common type of occupational fraud in both private and public sectors. They posit that employees (or officials) can steal cash, supplies and other assets or establish dummy companies or vendors to pay for goods and services that are not actually delivered. It is however argued (Green, 2002) that determining exactly what constitute embezzlement is sometimes difficult due to legal interpretations of the difference between embezzlement and offense of criminal conversion. 2.3.4. Conflict of Interest: Conflict of interest occurs when an employee (public official) has an undisclosed economic or personal interest in a transaction that will be undertaken by his/her organization. According to Albrecht et al, (2009), conflict of interest involves the exertion of influence by the employee at the detriment of the organization for personal gain or to benefit a friend or relative even though he/she may not received a financial benefit from the act. The conundrum to the conflict of interest is a situation where a public official may have to decline engaging competent and qualified person/organization for the supply of goods or services simple because he/she has a vested economic interest in the supplying organization. However, Albrecht et al, posits that to be classified as a conflict of interest, scheme, the officials interest in the transaction must be undisclosed, and thus the organization is not aware of his/her divided loyalty. 2.3.5. Cronyism: It refers to favorable treatment of friends and associates in the distribution of resources and positions without regard to their objective qualifications and professionalism. 2.3.6. Favoritism: Generally, favouritism, nepotism and clientelism involve abuses of discretion. Such abuses, however, are governed not by the self-interest of an official but the interests of someone linked to him or her through membership of a family, political party, tribe, religious or other group. If an individual bribes an official to hire him or her, the official acts in self-interest. If a corrupt official hires a relative, he or she acts in exchange for the less tangible benefit of advancing the interests of family or the specific relative involved (nepotism). The favouring of, or discriminating against, individuals can be based on a wide range of group characteristics: race, religion, geographical factors, political or other affiliation, as well as personal or organizational relationships, such as friendship or membership of clubs or associations. Favoritism takes place when one favors or prefers acquaintances, friends and family over strangers. It becomes corruption when public (and private sector) officials unfairly distribute positions and resources to colleagues. 2.3.7. Nepotism: Nepotism is used to indicate a form of favoritism that involves family relationships. It describes situations in which a person exploits his or her power and authority to procure jobs or other favors for relatives 2.3.8. Extortion: It is the illegal demand or receipt of property or money through the use of force or threat. According to Morris (1991), extortion in contrast to bribery, is a is a situation where the public official influences the behavior of a citizen through the use of negative sanctions as a threat further to abuse authority to induce cooperation. This is also widely referred to as graft. 2.4. Historical Context of corruption in Nigeria and Britain 2.4.1. Nigeria A comparative perspective on corruption provides insight about the role of this peculiar form of crime in various cultures and stages of development (Johnson D.T. Zimring F.E, 2007). The global perception of Nigeria on corruption should therefore be seen in its proper historical context by undertaking a comparative review of the historical evolution of the country and the colonial legacy (Olaleye-Oruene, 2007). Olaleye-Oruene argues that an examination of the Nigerian traditional business ethos prior to contact with Europeans, especially the British, indicates that corruption is not a cultural norm of the Nigerian people pre-colonial. In the Nigerian culture, an inducement by one party for the purpose of gaining an advantage over a competitor would be paramount to an insult and indeed an effrontery to the party awarding the contract. However, there is little documentation on African and Nigerian commercial and administrative transactions before the advent of colonialism to support t his believe. It is therefore on this note that the considered base for any empirical write-up on corruption in Nigeria can only be done from the colonial era. In the 1700 1800s, corruption especially political corruption (Willis 2002, p.151) was seen as a major problem in Britain only partly addressed by electoral reforms in the 19th century and thus during the Balkanization of the African continent that took place in Berlin in 1884-1885, the British which took control of the Northern and Southern Nigeria, imported its legal system, education and economic culture (Olaleye-Oruene, 2007). According to Olaleye-Oruene, European values endorses corruption in view of the commonality and political and corporate corruption found in many countries both eastern and western, with Germany, Britain, Italy, France, Belgium and the Netherlands in the West and therefore the sub-culture of corruption is seen as the acceptable face of capitalism and any form of commercial transactions with the West, notably with multinationals at the time. Foreign-sponsored bribery tends to be held by many observers in developing countries as the most significant contribut ing factor to corruption (Andvig Fjeldstad, 2000). To many commentators like Bloom, (2010) Western companies constitute the main culprits of the corruption syndrome in most developing countries. Quoting Transparency International, he said that the most corrupt industries are arms, construction and oil, and many western companies are helping to line peoples pockets illegally by selling wrong equipment, and dams and roads are built in the wrong place for no better reason other than the politicians can get their kick backs. See also Tanzi, Davoodi, (1997); Hunt and Laszlo, (2005); and Svensson, (2003). This is the situation Nigeria found itself when the country was amalgamated between the south and the north in 1914. In attempting to tackle the menace of the scourge as been treated in Britain in the earlier 18th century, the then British Colonial Administration promulgated the Nigerian Criminal Code in 1916, Ch. XII, with sections 98 and 116 dealing with corruption. The Code made it an offence corruptly to give or receive any gift or other advantage as an inducement to influence the conduct of any . . . officer or servant of any public body as defined in the code. It is punishable with a maximum of 14 years imprisonment and/or fine (Olaleye-Oruene, T. 2007, p.232). However, fitting as the buck shifting may be, the Nigerian perpetrators of corruption or pen-robbers (as they are euphemistically known) have superseded the Europeans in the art of corruption by making it the lifestyle of the body politic. Corruption is no longer confined to government contracts where the perpetrators share the loot of the graft, but percolates to every nook and cranny of the civil service and local government, political hierarchy, both civil and military, and even the church. It is widely noted that the judiciary is tainted by trials settled with bribes . . . universities are tarnished by the trade in diplomas (also bribery as means of gaining entry into universities) . . . the nobility has been mocked by the sale of chieftaincy titles . . . In other words, the majority of public officials are expected to be bribed for performing the duty which constitutes the terms of contract of their employment. For instance, messengers are regarded as powerful because they contr ol the movement of files and could bury the files if anyone fails to bribe them (Olaleye-Oruene, 2007 p.234). According to BBCs Caroline Duffield in Lagos, extortion of civilians and bribery of police is a fact of life in Nigeria often taking place in public and in broad daylight (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11001624) and the former Chairman of the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission, Nuhu Ribadu while speaking with the US Congress Financial Services Committee in May 2009, state that Nigeria have lost about $440 billion to corruption since independence in 1960. The question therefore is where did Nigeria get it wrong? Can the country continue to blame the British Colonialist considering that Britain has shed off its corruption tag of the 19th century? Several reasons have been adduced for this state of affairs such as prolonged military dictatorship; lack of political will to tackle corruption; lack of national plan; and the cultural tolerance of corruption and corrupt leadership and the absence of enforcement of the law against corruption. Corruption in public life in Nigeria manifested itself in the 1950s to 1960s with the first penal inquiry on the African Continental Bank (ACB) and Nnamdi Azikiwe affairs with a Justice Strafford Forster-Sutton commission in 1957; the Justice G.B. Coker Commission in 1962 to look into the activities of the then Western region government led by Chief Awolowo and the National Investment and Property company. However, it is widely believed that the malaise started to become a public way of life during the military regimes of General Gown, (Ministry of Defence cement importation scandal), General Obasanjo, (Missing N2.8 Billion from the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation) and the subsequent pr omulgation of Decree No.11 of 1976 (Public officers Protection Against False Accusation) seen as the arming of corrupt government officials with immunity and a carte blanche to be above the law (Nwaobi, G.C. 2004). From the Military administration of Gen. Obasanjo in 1976 to President Obasanjo in 1999, there have been many looting of the Nigerian Commonwealth by its leaders and their cronies and such funds deposited in foreign bank accounts that may or may not ever be recovered again. The corruption activities of the Shagari civilian regime and the dictatorial military regimes of Buhari, Babangida, Abacha and even Abdulsalam are well documented in Nigeria (Nwaobi, 2004). The subject of this dissertation will not permit a detail review of the corruption cases in these regimes; however, a table highlighting some of the looted funds is attached as appendix 1. 2.4.2. Great Britain. Concern about corruption is as old as the history of government. In 350 BCE, Aristotle suggested in The Politics, To protect the treasury from being defrauded, let all money be issued openly in front of the whole city, and let copies of the accounts be deposited in various wards. The UK has widely been seen as the model of the non-corrupt industrial democracy (Adonis, 1997). However, a look into the UK history in the last few centuries will portray a society once rife with all forms of corruption. Willis (2002, p.151) quoting Lever 1971 and Denning 1981, stated that the court of King James I of England was once described in the following terms: this is a tale of extravagance, waste, corruption and vice unprecedented sums of money were squandered Titles and government offices were bought and sold. Through Monopolies, tax-farming and appropriation of public land for private purposes the entire national economy was fleeced by parasitic rulers and their cronies Also quoting Williams (1960), Willis said that corruption was the major avenue of securing election to parliament, forming government and staying in government. Therefore buying a seat in parliament out of your own resources was almost the only mode by which parliament was accessible with honour to those who had no family connection or local patron. The Anti-Bribery Act (Last Determination Act 1729, 2 Geo II c 24) called an Act for the more effectual preventing bribery and corruption in election of members to serve in Parliament; The Place Act 1742 (15 Geo II c 22); and Burkes Place Act 1782 (22 Geo III c 45) were some of the early measures taken between the century 1729 to 1832 to curb bribery and corruption in the British political and administrative system. In Britain, the practice of corruption was so rampant in the late 19th century as to necessitate the enactment of a private members bill, the Public Bodies Corrupt Practices Act 1889, in order to implement the recommendation made in 1888 in an interim report by the Royal Commission which investigated various malpractices by the Metropolitan Board of Works. In the decade either side of the First World War a succession of corruption scandals seriously clouded the government of Prime Minister David Lloyd George (Adonis, 1997) In the last half century however, Britain invariably scores highly in indices on integrity in public life despite evidence of underlying and persistent corruption (Doig, 1984, 1995, 1996) as quoted in Doig, (2004). Evidence of bribery and the misuse of public office for partisan or personal benefit has invariably been treated as episodic and personalized. When identified, such as the Poulson scandal of the 1970s; the cash -for- question scandals in the House of Commons in the 1990s; the corruption at the local government council levels like the Lambeth borough council in 1993 and the recent Expenses scandals involving MPs in 2009, cases have been subject to investigations that have dealt with the offenders while confirming the general integrity of institutions and the robustness of the procedures involved in dealing with the offences. At the same time, British political and administrative life has pragmatically so ordered its affairs that the need for corruption has been widely minim ized. Thus members of the executive and senior civil servants are unlikely even to be offered, let alone accept, bribes from government contractors while in office and from the latter half of the nineteenth, into the early twentieth century, political and administrative leaderships were able to introduce measures that precluded membership of Parliament as a means of personal profit in return for government support; required verbal disclosure of financial interests; curbed payments for honours; disengaged MPs and ministers from the spoils and patronage systems that dominated traditional politics; introduced constraints on civil servants moving to the private sector; outlawed voter bribery, and introduced anticorruption legislation for both public and private sectors (Doig, 2003). While it should be remembered that corruption and misconduct did not necessarily disappear during this period, allegations invariably provoked some form of official inquiry that was often used as a vehicle f or some general statement of the principles of conduct. It is therefore not surprising that Britain is rated highly above Nigeria in the Transparency Internationals corruption perception index. 2.5. Theoretical Empirical Works on Corruption: Corruption generally has attracted a great deal of attention in both academic and non-academic circles as reflected through an increased number of studies devoted to the topics. There is a growing body of theoretical and empirical studies within the economics literature examining the factors contributing to corruption and corruptibility within the public service. This will be looked into as below: 2.5.1. Theories on Corruption: Existing theories fail to differentiate various forms of corruption. Morris, (1991 p. 10), states that most theoretical arguments posit a major causal agent as producing corruption; non really specifies what type of corruption may result or what specific factors may relate to different corrupt acts This could be as a result of the difficult nature of defining what really constitute corruption. According to deGraaf (2007), most definitions of corruption are focused on social constructivism and thus it is based on what is considered as corruption at a certain place and at a particular time. In his studies of corruption in the Western countries, he theorized six causes of corruption which will also be considered below: Principal Agent Theory: One of the standard frameworks used in the theoretical analysis of corruption is the principal-agent model. A principal can be a person or an organization, in the case of this research, a government. The model holds that on behalf of the principal, the agent interacts with a client and thus may commit corruption if in his analysis, the benefits outweighs the costs. Using this model researchers like (Bardhan, 1997; Klitgaard, 1988; Rose-Ackerman, 1978) have investigated the trade-offs between the expected costs and benefits of corrupt acts. The reasons for the considered economic benefit may include such as lower wages (Becker and Stigler, 1974; Chand and Moene, 1999; Mookherjee and Png, 1995), social welfare (Becker and Stigler, 1974; Khalil and Lawarree, 1995; Mookherjee and Png, 1995) and greed (de Graaf, 2007). The Principal-Agent theory considers corruption at the micro-model and the agent makes his/her decisions based on a benefit versus costs and thus i f the agent chooses not to be corrupt, they receive a payoff that is the sum of their regular pay plus the moral satisfaction of not being a corrupt. According to Klitgaard as quoted by Chan (2000), the cost depends on his/her own ethical, cultural and religious standards; influence of peers and colleagues; the size and magnitude of the bribe and responsibilities to the principal. Economic Rent and corruption equation: All economic agents are maximizing their individual utility that is personal welfare (wealth). Therefore, selfish interests of economic agents are the basic motive for economic transactions between them. A common thread in these models is that the government is led by a benevolent dictator (the principal), who aims to motivate government officials (agents) to act with integrity in the use of public resources (see Banfield 1975; Becker 1968, 1983; Becker and Stigler 1974; Klitgaard 1988, 1997; Rose-Ackerman 1975, 1978). Resources are allocated to the activities that provide the greatest returns on investment (an allocation decision). Rent by economic definition is a factor of income above the competitive returns (opportunity costs) of the factor and thus because rent appropriations will maximize individual utility (welfare), economic agents are engaged in the rent-seeking process, the process of creation and distribution (appropriation) of rent. Theoretically speaking, rent can be created in a few distinctive ways, but in reality the most significant rent generator is government intervention through the violation of free market operations by way of regulations. In his classical Corruption Equation, Kiltgaard, (1998) postulates that: Corruption Equation C=R+D A Where C= Corruption, R= Economic Rent D= Discretionary powers A= Accountability. In the equation, Kiltgaard posits that Corruption (C) will exist if more opportunities for Economic Rent ( R) exist in a country and that the greater the discretionary powers (D) granted to administrators (bureaucrats, leaders, politicians etc) the more the chances of corruption. However, the equation states that the more administrators are held Accountable (A) for their actions, the less will be corruption. This is designated by the minus sign in front of A. Stated differently, the equation tells us that a fertile ground for growth of a thoroughly corrupt system will emerge in a country if it satisfies the following three conditions: It has a large number of laws, rules, regulations, and administrative orders to restrict business and economic activities and thereby creates huge opportunities for generating economic rent, and especially if these restrictive measures are complex and opaque and applied in a selective, secretive, inconsistent and non-transparent way; Administrators are granted large discretionary powers with respect to interpreting rules, are given a lot of freedom to decide on how rules are to be applied, to whom and in what manner they are to be applied, are vested with powers to amend, alter, and rescind the rules, and even to supplement the rules by invoking new restrictive administrative measures and procedures; and There are no effective mechanisms and institutional arrangements in the country to hold administrators accountable for their actions. The Public/Rational Choice Theory: Like most white-collar crimes, corruption has been seen as a crime of rational choice where the causal chain is that of an individual making a rational decision that leads to a predetermined outcome (de Graaf, 2007). According to de Graaf, the individual corrupt official tries to maximize his utility by rationally calculating when to become corrupt if its expected advantages outweigh its expected disadvantages (a combination of possible penalty and the chance of being caught). Rose-Ackeman (1978), posits that public officials are corrupt simply because they perceive that the potential benefits of corruption exceeds that potential costs. See also Klitgaard, (1988), Gambetta, 1993). This theory is supported by works of Hirschi and Gottfredson (1987) Shover and Hochstetler (2006), and Simpson (2009) in their rational choice theories on white-collar crimes. The rational choice theory, unlike others concentrates on a specific situation of an agent who ca lculates the pros and cons ignoring the larger social context that breeds corruption. Its focus on the officials calculation of the ensuing trade-off as a motivation leaves a gapping question of why some officials especially in the Western countries are not corrupt. The Bad Apple (Anomie) Theory: This theory also looks at the level of an individual for the causal effect of corruption. Most studies on